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Cassation

by Tamás Szabados, ELTE Eötvös Loránd Universität Budapest

In disputes related to stolen or illegally exported cultural property, conflict of laws provisions often play a significant role due to the absence of universally accepted substantive private law rules. This has been analysed in a recent post shared on this blog.

In most private international laws, cultural goods are treated in the same way as any other object, and accordingly the law applicable to issues of property law is determined in accordance with the lex rei sitae principle. If cultural goods are stolen or illegally exported from a country and brought to another state, where a good faith buyer acquires ownership over the goods, the application of the lex rei sitae principle often results in the recognition of the title of the bona fide purchaser over that of the original owner. In order to promote the restitution of stolen and illegally exported cultural property, several authors argued that the lex rei sitae principle should be replaced by other connecting factors.

In the legal literature, much effort has been made to find a more suitable connecting factor. The application of the lex originis principle was widely proposed as an alternative. Nevertheless, the lex originis principle also has some flaws. Sometimes it may be difficult or impossible the geographical or cultural origin of the cultural goods. The place from which the cultural goods were stolen is not necessarily demonstrate a closer connection to the case than the lex rei sitae if the goods are only temporarily located on the territory of the state concerned.

It seems that there is a discernible trend in private international law codifications to address specifically stolen and illegally exported cultural property. They are typically based on a combination of the lex rei sitae and the lex originis principles and provide room for the parties’ autonomy. Such legislation has been enacted, among others, in Belgium (Belgian Private International Law Act, articles 90 and 92) and Hungary (Hungarian Private International Law Act, articles 46-47). It is also noteworthy that in a study the European Parliament also examined the possibility of the adoption of distinct conflict of laws rules for cultural goods and proposed a similar solution.

This current legislative trend is analysed in a recent article written by Tamás Szabados that has been published in the International Journal of Cultural Property. The author poses the question whether the recent private international law codifications have found the Holy Grail of the conflict of laws of cultural property.

The article is available through the website of the International Journal of Cultural Property here.

Repubblika
DFON
Avocat général Hogan : le droit de l’Union ne fait pas obstacle à des dispositions constitutionnelles nationales en vertu desquelles le pouvoir exécutif ou l’un de ses membres, comme le Premier ministre, joue un rôle dans la procédure de nomination de membres de l’ordre judiciaire

A.B. e.a. (Nomination des juges à la Cour suprême - Recours)
Droit institutionnel
Selon l’avocat général Tanchev, la loi polonaise introduite dans le but d’exclure la possibilité d’un contrôle juridictionnel de l’appréciation, par le Conseil national de la magistrature, des candidats aux fonctions de juge à la Cour suprême viole le droit de l’Union

Generalstaatsanwaltschaft Hamburg
Espace de liberté, sécurité et justice
L’exécution d’un mandat d’arrêt européen délivré aux fins d’exécution d’une peine privative de liberté ne peut être refusée, lorsque la personne concernée a fait obstacle à sa citation en personne et n’a pas comparu en personne au procès en raison de sa fuite vers l’État membre d’exécution, au seul motif que l’État membre d’émission n’a pas assuré que le droit à un nouveau procès de cette personne sera respecté

Syndicat interprofessionnel de défense du fromage Morbier
Agriculture
Le droit de l’Union interdit la reproduction de la forme ou de l’apparence du produit protégé par une AOP dans certaines circonstances

A.M. (Étiquetage des produits cosmétiques)
Rapprochement des législations
La mention de la « fonction » d’un produit cosmétique, devant figurer sur son récipient et son emballage, doit clairement informer le consommateur sur l’usage et le mode d’utilisation de ce produit

CLCV e.a. (Dispositif d’invalidation sur moteur diesel)
Environnement et consommateurs
Un constructeur ne peut installer un dispositif d’invalidation qui améliore systématiquement, lors des procédures d’homologation, la performance du système de contrôle des émissions des véhicules afin d’obtenir leur homologation

WEG Tevesstraße
Fiscalité TVA
La livraison de chaleur par un groupement de propriétaires de logements à ses membres est soumise à la TVA

Openbaar Ministerie (Indépendance de l’autorité judiciaire d’émission)
Espace de liberté, sécurité et justice
L’existence d’éléments témoignant de défaillances systémiques ou généralisées concernant l’indépendance de la justice en Pologne ou de l’aggravation de celles-ci ne justifie pas, à elle seule, que les autorités judiciaires des autres États membres refusent d’exécuter tout mandat d’arrêt européen émis par une autorité judiciaire polonaise

Generalstaatsanwaltschaft Berlin (Extradition vers l'Ukraine)
DISC
Un citoyen de l’Union ne peut être extradé vers un État tiers qu’après consultation de l’État membre dont il a la nationalité

Centraal Israëlitisch Consistorie van België e.a.
Agriculture
Afin de promouvoir le bien-être animal dans le cadre de l’abattage rituel, les États membres peuvent, sans méconnaître les droits fondamentaux consacrés par la Charte, imposer un procédé d’étourdissement réversible et insusceptible d’entraîner la mort de l’animal

On 10 December 2020, the CJEU decided in the case of A. B. and B. B. v Personal Exchange International Limited whether and under what circumstances a player in an online poker game can be considered a “professional” and accordingly fall outside the scope of the consumer provisions of the Brussels I and Brussels I bis Regulation.

Facts

B. B., a natural person living in Slovenia, and Personal Exchange International Limited (PEI), a company operating a platform offering online poker on a cross-border basis inter alia in Slovenia, entered into a contract that allowed B. B. to play poker on the platform. The contract contained a jurisdiction clause which conferred jurisdiction on the courts of Malta.

Between March 2010 and May 2011, B. B. spent a daily average of 9 hours on the game and earned no less than EUR 227.000 in just over one year. In 2011 PEI froze B. B.’s account and retained the money in his account.

After being sued by B. B. in Slovenia, PEI refused to consider him a consumer and insisted on the validity of the choice-of-court clause contained in the contract.  PEI thus denied the jurisdiction of the Courts in Slovenia. The Vrhovno sodišče, the highest court of Slovenia, referred the question of the international jurisdiction of the Slovenian courts over the case to the CJEU.

Issue

The legal issue was therefore whether a person can be regarded as a consumer in the sense of Art 15 et seq. Brussel I Regulation if the person has specialised knowledge and skills in the area, spends a considerable amount of time with the subject matter of the contract and derives a significant profit from it.

Holding and Rationale

In its judgment, the CJEU first clarifies that the Brussels I Regulation applies on the basis of temporal scope under  Art 81 Brussels Ibis (para 3).

Regarding characterisation as a consumer or professional, the CJEU stresses that neither the profits made, nor the regularity with which the game was played, nor the knowledge or expertise of the player would be decisive as such (para 49). Instead, the Court of Justice highlights that B.B. did not offer any goods or services to third parties and had not officially registered its activity (para 48). With these guidelines in mind, the CJEU left the final characterisation of the B.B.’s status to the national court (para 49).

Assessment

The judgment is in line with the CJEU’s previous case law, such as the decision in Petruchova and Schrems. The Court of Justice rightly stresses the need for legal certainty, which could be undermined if the characterisation as a consumer were to depend on variables such as the profits made, the time spent on an online game or the knowledge or expertise of the player.

It is equally easy to understand why the Court of Justice introduced the criterion of offering goods and services to third parties for qualification as a professional. More contestable is the criterion of registration of activities by the player: whether somebody is to be considered a professional or a consumer should not be made subject to his or her own decision to register. As a result of the decision, it will be extremely hard, if not impossible, to ever consider an online poker player a professional. Hold’em all!