Agrégateur de flux

The recently published study titled ‘European Commercial Contract Law’, authored by Andrea Bertolini, addresses the theme of regulatory competition. It offers new policy recommendations to improve EU legal systems’ chances of being chosen as the law governing commercial contracts.

 

The Study’s main question

The European Parliament’s Committee on Legal Affairs has published a new study authored by Andrea Bertolini, titled ‘European Commercial Contract Law’ (the ‘Study’). The Study formulates the main question as follows: ‘why the law chosen in commercial contracts is largely non-European and non-member state law’. The expression ‘non-European and non-member state’ law is specified as denoting the legal systems of England and Wales, the United States, and Singapore, and more generally, common law legal systems. The Study states:

It is easily observed how most often international contracts are governed by non-European law. The reasons why this occurs are up to debate and could be quite varied both in nature and relevance. Indeed, a recent study by Singapore Academy of Law (SAL) found that 43 per cent of commercial practitioners and in-house counsel preferred English law as the governing law of the contracts.

Although the SAL’s findings are immediately relativised, the Study is underpinned by the assumption (derived from the SAL’s findings) that commercial parties frequently opt for common law. The trend of choosing non-European and non-member state law, the Study submits, is the main reason for enquiring into measures that can be taken to improve the chances of EU Member States’ legal systems being chosen as the law governing commercial contracts:

While the validity of such a study may be questioned, the prevalence of common law in international business transactions, emerging also from other reports and studies (see for a detailed discussion §§2.2 ff.), is one of the very reasons that led to need of performing the current analysis, and should be taken into account, so as to identify those elements that may be improved in the European and MS’s regulatory framework for commercial contracts entered into by sophisticated parties.

The endeavour to identify the points of improvement in the EU and Member States’ regulatory frameworks for international contracts merits appreciation and is relevant to businesses and policymakers. Meanwhile, this endeavour implies a complex task. This task can be approached from different perspectives.

The parties’ perspective

The question of what drives private parties to choose one legal system over another as the law governing their contract is an empirical question. It implies the need to conduct an empirical study, including surveys, interviews, or to use another quantitative or qualitative social science methods. This method has been used in several empirical studies, which have provided various insights into the parties’ attitudes to the choice of law in commercial contracts. To name a few important studies, these include the research by Stefan Vogenauer on regulatory competition through the choice of contract law in Europe, the research by Gilles Cuniberti on international market for contracts and the most attractive contract laws, and an empirical study of parties’ preferences in international sales contracts conducted by Luiz Gustavo Meira Moser. Vogenauer’s research focused on Europe (which included the United Kingdom at that time), while the studies by Cuniberti and Meira Moser had a broader ambit.

Despite the possibly empirical nature of the Study’s main question, the Study neither uses empirical methods nor focuses on the parties’ perspectives. Instead, it takes the policymakers’ perspective.

The policymakers’ perspective

The Study aims to ‘identify possible policies to be implemented to overcome’ the trend that ‘the law chosen in commercial contracts is largely non-European and non-member state’. The findings are formulated as recommendations for policymakers who attempt to make their own legal systems attractive to parties involved in international transactions. The recommendations address both substantive contract law and civil procedure (see inter alia point 2.1 on page 42). Within civil procedure, the Study leaves outside the scope conflict-of-law questions of the extent to which the courts upheld choice-of-law agreements or how various legal systems applicable to contract interpretation deal with the application of foreign law. By contrast, specific attention is paid to the efficiency of the national judiciaries.

Along with the discussion of substantive law, civil procedure and national judiciaries’ efficiency, the Study looks for the reasons for (what it assumes to be) the low success rate of EU Member States’ contract law in the pitfalls of the projects to harmonise contract law that have been undertaken over the last decades. The Study states from the outset:

Indeed, absent an autonomous European contract law, business parties often elect other, non-European jurisdictions (often common law ones), to govern their contractual agreements.

It goes on to identify ‘the fate’ of various attempts to harmonise contract law, such as soft law instruments (including the Principles of European Contract Law (PECL), the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts (UPICC), the Acquis Principles, the Draft Common Frame of Reference (DCFR), and the Common European Sales Law project). These are addressed in the first part of the Study, after which the contract laws of various legal systems are compared and coupled with a comparison of the functioning of the court systems. The method on which the Study bases its conclusions and recommendations is outlined as follows:

To do so, it first provides an overview of the relevant academic and policy efforts underwent to formulate a European contract law (Chapter 1). Then it moves on to touch upon a broad spectrum of matters emerging both from international reports on the adjudication and the functioning of the courts systems, as well as from academic literature on matters that span from contract qualification, interpretation, integration, and some fundamental aspects of remedies (Chapter 2). It then provides a series of policy options (Chapter 3), European institutions could consider when attempting to alter this trend and ensure EU regulation a global role in commercial contracts too.

Regulatory competition, soft law, or de facto harmonisation?

Placing harmonisation of contract law at the core of the discussion of regulatory competition is a fresh look at the (soft law) instruments harmonising contract law. However, it is a somewhat unexpected take on these instruments, because participation in regulatory competition, whereby a EU instrument would compete with third states’ laws, does not appear to be the goal of any contract law harmonisation project. For instance, the UNIDROIT principles have harmonised commercial contract law worldwide. The instrument contains a number of rules rooted in the legal system of the United States (Uniform Commercial Code and States’ case law) and has been endorsed by the UNCITRAL. The PECL and DCFR limit their scope to the EU, but at the time of these instruments’ drafting, the United Kingdom was an EU Member State. Furthermore, PECL and DCFR are not confined to commercial contract law; they address contract law more broadly.

In contrast to these harmonisation projects, the Study appears to promote (without explicitly stating this) the de facto harmonisation by contract clauses and the need to foster party autonomy in the interpretation of contracts. If this is correct, this would be a very welcome recommendation, albeit not entirely new. The Study states:

Overall, the analysis is then used to lay out some policy recommendations that may only be broad in scope and point at one direction more than providing detailed solutions.

All efforts should aim at pursuing the efficiency of the judiciary on the one hand, and the creation of a set of minimalist and – possibly – self-sufficient norms dedicated to the regulation of business contracts that prioritize legal certainty, foreseeability of the outcome, preservation of the parties will.

This and other recommendations are summarised on page 9 and provided on pages 76 ff, and are certainly worth reading.

This post has been written by Jacco Bomhoff (LSE), Uglješa Grušić (UCL), and Manuel Penades (KCL).

As previously announced, the LSE Law School hosted a symposium to celebrate the scholarly work of Emeritus Professor Trevor C. Hartley on 17 October 2023.

The Symposium brought together around 70 participants, colleagues, and friends from the UK and abroad, who celebrated and discussed Trevor’s many contributions.

The first contribution to the Symposium was a keynote by Professor David Kershaw, Dean of the LSE Law School. He reminded us that Trevor came to LSE from the University of Western Ontario in 1969 and taught at LSE for a record-breaking 54 years. In that time, Trevor firmly established himself as a leading scholar in private international law and EU law, and inspired many generations of law students.

Subsequently, Lord Collins gave another keynote in which he commented on Trevor’s contributions to private international law. Trevor has pursued many topics in the field, but is perhaps best known for his work on mandatory rules, choice-of-court agreements, and comparative international civil and commercial litigation. He joined the team of editors of Dicey and Morris on Conflict of Laws (as it then was) in 1985 and was one of the specialist editors responsible for 10 chapters in the 11th edition (1987) and 12 chapters in the 12th edition (1993). He sat on the Lord Chancellor’s Committee for Private International Law, gave a Hague Academy special course on the common law approach to mandatory rules in international contracts in 1997 and a general course on the modern approach to private international law in 2006, and was a rapporteur on the 2005 Hague Choice-of-Court Convention. Trevor has authored many books in the field, including a student textbook on International Commercial Litigation (CUP, now in its 3rd edition from 2020), and monographs on Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments in Europe (OUP, now in its 3rd edition from 2023) and Choice-of-Court Agreements under the European and International Instruments (OUP, 2013).

These keynotes were followed by the first panel of the day, which focused on global and comparative private international law, one of the main themes of Trevor’s scholarship. This panel was chaired by Dr Roxana Banu (Oxford), who noted that the aim of the Symposium was to celebrate Trevor and, through Trevor, the field of private international law.

The first speaker in this panel, Professor Paul Beaumont (Stirling), outlined the 2019 Hague Foreign Judgments Convention and explained its relationship with the 2005 Hague Choice-of-Court Convention. He commented on key features of the 2019 Convention, such as the broad range of judgments that come within its scope, the broad set of indirect jurisdictional rules, and exclusion of arbitration. Furthermore, he noted that the 2019 Convention supplements the 2005 Convention in different ways, for example by covering non-exclusive choice-of-court agreements, providing for a defence of breach of a jurisdiction agreement, and covering asymmetric choice-of-court agreements (as confirmed in Etihad Airways PJSC v Flother, where the Court of Appeal referred to the Hartley and Dogauchi Explanatory Report at [85]). Finally, Professor Beaumont confirmed that the two conventions should be interpreted in a systematic way. The 2005 and 2019 Conventions represent two key pieces of the Hague global justice system, which is a fitting legacy for Trevor’s excellent work on the 2005 Convention.

Professor Alex Mills (UCL) commented on the importance of the 2005 Convention. He remarked that the fact that the 2005 Convention exists and is in force is important for the Hague Conference and global private international law. However, a relatively modest number of ratifications demonstrates challenges of international harmonisation. Nevertheless, the success of a treaty is not measured only in terms of number of ratifications – the 2005 Convention crystalised the importance and acceptance of party autonomy in the field of jurisdiction and foreign judgments, and is an important sign of consensus in this respect. The 2005 Convention is important for the London litigation market because it provided a degree of continuity after Brexit. Finally, Professor Mills noted the value of the Hartley and Dogauchi Explanatory Report for interpreting and applying the treaty, and its contribution to the success of the treaty.

Professor Koji Takahashi (Doshisha) commented on comparative private international law by pointing out that the relationship between the common law and civil law systems in private international law is often analysed in terms of well-known dichotomies. One of those dichotomies is pragmatism v dogmatism (idealism). Nevertheless, Professor Takahashi noted that all private international law systems combine elements of both pragmatism and dogmatism. He demonstrated this point by showing the pragmatic aspects of pleading and proof of foreign law, renvoi, and the choice-of-law rules for divorce in Japanese law. The application of these doctrines often allows Japanese courts to apply Japanese law.

Professor Veronica Ruiz Abou-Nigm (Edinburgh) closed the first panel by discussing the protection of global commons in private international law, a subject that Trevor touched on in his 2009 Revue Hellenique de droit international article on ‘Multinational Corporations and the Third World’. Prof Ruiz Abou-Nigm did this by drawing out attention to three points: (1) power imbalances and access to justice, particularly in the context of business and human rights litigation; (2) accessibility of the private international law logic to ordinary people and lawyers; and (3) impact of differentials in capacity and expertise. Professor Ruiz Abou-Nigm concluded by remarking on the importance of local solutions to global problems such as sustainable development, and by recognising the importance of academic activism.

This panel was followed by a third keynote given by Professor Hans van Loon, who, as former Secretary General of the Hague Conference, is particularly well placed to comment on Trevor’s contribution to the work of the Conference. Professor van Loon expressed a view that the Hartley and Dogauchi Explanatory Report is a “masterpiece”. Professor Van Loon also reminded us that Trevor is a key member of the European Group of Private International Law (GEDIP).

A fourth keynote was given by Professor Carol Harlow (LSE, emerita). Since Professor Harlow and Trevor joined LSE at around the same time, she was able to comment on Trevor’s contributions to the LSE Law School, as well as on Trevor’s contributions to public law and EU law scholarship. Some readers of the blog may not know that Trevor was a pioneer in EU law in the UK and that his book on the Foundations of European Community Law (Clarendon Press, 1981) had a significant impact in the English-speaking world.

The day’s second panel was chaired by Professor Pippa Rogerson (Cambridge). Its remit was Trevor ’s well-known ICLQ article on the CJEU’s “systematic dismantling of the common law” in its decisions in Gasser v Misat, Owusu v Jackson, and Turner v Grovit. The panel’s task was to revisit the article, almost 20 years after its publication, and in light of all that has happened in the law of civil jurisdiction since.

Professor Andrew Dickinson (Oxford) spoke first, on anti-suit injunctions. Professor Dickinson sketched a contrast between Trevor’s view of anti-suit injunctions, which he characterized as one of “wary receptiveness”, and his own, which was “warier and less receptive”. Zooming out from the discussion of Turner v Grovit, Dickinson also looked further back – to the Privy Council’s seminal decision in Aérospatiale v Lee Kui Jak, on which Trevor recently published a case comment – and to more recent developments, notably the CJEU’s decision in Charles Taylor Adjusting Ltd v Starlight Shipping Co. Professor Dickinson’s conclusion was that “[The] anti-suit injunction is as controversial as it ever was, and the issues that it throws up have become more complex as the world and the ways in which legal systems interact with one another have evolved over time. It is a good thing that Trevor has been willing to serve as one of our principal guides, highlighting the trade-offs involved in choosing between unilateralism and multilateralism.”

Professor Jonathan Harris (KCL) discussed forum non conveniens, taking up not just the ICLQ article just mentioned, but also Trevor’s book on Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments (Sweet & Maxwell, 1984), and his 1992 comment in the European Law Review on the Court of Appeal’s decision in Re Harrods (Buenos Aires) Ltd [1992] Ch 72. Professor Harris noted how Trevor thought the Court of Appeal had reached the right decision in that case, and how he “did not hold back” in his later criticism of Owusu, in both the ICLQ article and in his lectures for the Hague Academy. Again taking a broader perspective, Professor Harris noted that the answer to the question “forum non conveniens – where are we now?” seems to be, roughly, “where we were 35 years ago”, at the time of Spiliada. Professor Harris concluded by giving his views on why, in the way English law is currently structured, so much still turns on the ability of claimants to serve defendants within the jurisdiction, as compared to having to obtain permission to serve out.

Professor Eva Lein (BIICL and Lausanne) was slated to speak on “torpedo” actions – another topic of concern in the “systematic dismantling” article – but unfortunately had to cancel at short notice.

The last speaker for this panel, therefore, was Professor Adrian Briggs (Oxford), who addressed the topic “What is left of the Brussels I Regulation in English law and in the English courts?”. Professor Briggs identified four different layers to the lingering effects of the Brussels regime. First, the direct legacy of the rules of section 15 of the Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 1982, as amended, on jurisdiction in certain cases involving consumers and employees. Second, and a little more indirect, is the baggage of CJEU interpretations of key terms in the Rome I and Rome II Regulations that built on their approach to the Brussels regime, and that now threaten to affect the English courts’ approach to the retained rules on choice of law. For both these instruments, in Professor Briggs’ view, the conclusion is that there is nothing much wrong with the “European” rules themselves, but rather a lot wrong with the CJEU’s interpretation of them. The third and fourth layers to the legacy of the Brussels regime in English law, in Professor Briggs’ view, sound in cultural terms. First, certain basic ideas and outlooks familiar from practice under the Brussels rules may still influence English law. The main example for this is perhaps the basic proposition, patterned on Article 4 of Brussels I bis, that it is right that claimants should always be able to sue English companies in England. For the fourth and last lingering effect of the Brussels regime, Professor Briggs returned to the main theme of Trevor’s “systematic dismantling” article. This is the lasting memory, stated bluntly, of a Court of Justice preaching mutual respect but acting with disrespect; to Member States courts and legal systems in general, and to the common law in particular.

The last keynote speaker for the day was Professor Damian Chalmers (National University of Singapore). His speech combined an appraisal of Trevor’s early and seminal contributions to the study of the law of the European Communities, with a more personal reflection on Trevor’s role as mentor.

The final panel dealt with the relationship between dispute resolution clauses and EU law, another of Trevor’s significant themes of scholarship. The panel was chaired by Professor Yvonne Baatz (QMUL, retired). She opened the session by highlighting the breadth of Trevor’s work and his characteristic ability to explain complex ideas in accessible and clear ways.

The first talk in the panel was given by Alexander Layton KC (Twenty Essex and KCL), focusing on the reflexive effect of EU private international law. While the topic is now primarily of historical interest in England, Layton explained that it still serves as a good example of the tension between the common law and civil law traditions. He criticised the CJEU for failing to consider the role of comity in the context of the potential reflexive effect of the Brussels regime toward third States in three relevant areas: foreign lis pendens, exclusive jurisdiction, and dispute resolution clauses in favour of the courts of third States. While lis pendens is now resolved by Articles 33 and 34 of Brussels I bis, the other two issues remain contentious. National courts have three options: interpreting the Brussels/Lugano regime as incorporating an implied yet mandatory reflexive effect (“strict reflexivity”); prohibiting such reflexive effect based on the mandatory application of the rules on jurisdiction of the Brussels/Lugano regime in favour of EU courts, regardless of the interests of the third State (“prohibited reflexivity”); permitting EU courts to decide the matter based on national law given the absence of express solution in the Brussels/Lugano regime (“flexible reflexivity”). While all three options present challenges, English courts appear to have adopted the flexible reflexivity approach (Ferrexpo v AG v Gilson Investments Ltd). Layton opined that brief passages in previous European case law suggest that the CJEU could support the “strict reflexivity” model. This uncertainty might be resolved by the forthcoming decision in BSH Hausgeräte v Aktiebolaget Electrolux concerning the validity of a Turkish validation of a European patent.

This talk was followed by Professor Richard Fentiman (Cambridge), who spoke about the relationship between international arbitration and the Brussels/Lugano regime. He identified two reasons why the English legal community was profoundly unpersuaded by the case law of the CJEU that curtailed contractual remedies to enforce arbitration agreements in the form of antisuit injunctions and damages awards. The first was that those EU decisions were not about the hierarchy between arbitration and EU law but about a more profound clash between the integrity of the Brussels rules and the remedies available under national law to enforce arbitration agreements. The second reason concerned the Court’s frustrating technique, which refused to recognise the conceptual distinction between the allocation of jurisdiction, on the one hand, and the enforcement of contractual rights and controlling personal conduct, on the other. The use of open-textured concepts such as mutual trust and effet utile did not inspire confidence and, in fact, was used by the Court to make policy decisions in the guise of legal reasoning. In the second part of his presentation, Professor Fentiman argued that these contractual remedies should become available and effective again after Brexit even vis-à-vis EU Member States (as evidenced by French case law). Also he pointed out that the doctrine laid by the CJEU in Case Charles Taylor Adjusting no longer applies to English decisions and, therefore, their European effectiveness will depend on the national law of each EU Member State and their notions of public policy. The relief brought by Brexit, he concluded, is that the decision whether to request those remedies from English courts in each case will depend on the parties’ litigation strategies, and not on a general prohibition imposed by EU law. Equally, he celebrated the fact that English courts will be free to address outstanding questions such as the compatibility of these contractual remedies with Article 6 of the European Convention of Human Rights squarely and without the restrictions imposed by the often tendentious unpersuasive reasoning of the CJEU.

The third presentation in this panel was delivered by Jan Kleinheisterkamp (LSE), who spoke about arbitration and EU mandatory rules. He explained that at the root of the problem lies the fact that, unlike national courts with article 9 of the Rome I Regulation, arbitrators do not have a clear choice of law regime for mandatory rules. As a result of Eco Swiss and Ingmar, some European courts have refused the enforcement of arbitration agreements when the use of international arbitration, coupled with the choice of law made by the parties, would lead to the disapplication of EU mandatory law. An option to avoid this radical effect would be to allow court proceedings seeking an undertaking by both parties to apply the relevant mandatory rule as a condition to enforce the arbitration agreement, linked to the possibility of court review at the post-arbitration stage (just like in the SCOTUS decision in Mitsubishi v. Soler Chrysler-Plymouth). Dr Kleinheisterkamp argued that the growing tendency of English courts to issue antisuit injunctions should not impede the operation of this proposal post-Brexit, when a party commenced court proceedings before EU courts to obtain such undertaking from its counterparty to the arbitration agreement. To do this, English courts should reconsider the possible application of Ralli Bros v Compania Naviera Sota y Aznar (1921) 8 Ll L Rep 139 to arbitration agreements and avoid turning England into a safe haven for arbitrations of any colour and shape. A more measured approach was preferable to avoid backlashes against arbitration, and recent decisions by English courts preventing illegality in arbitration (The Federal Republic of Nigeria v Process & Industrial Developments Limited) offered hope that some judges were receptive to that restrained approach.

Professor Linda Silberman (NYU, emerita) closed the panel. She discussed the potential adoption of the 2005 Hague Choice-of-Court Convention by the USA and the controversy raised by the reactions of some arbitration practitioners against the Convention compared to the 1958 New York Convention (see here, here, and here). While the prospects for the adoption of the 2005 Convention are positive, Professor Silberman signalled that one of the main areas of concern was that, unlike in Article V(1)(a) of the NYC, Article 9(a) of the 2005 Convention provides that that the determination by the chosen court in favour of the validity of the forum selection agreement is conclusive. A recent discussion on the subject in the NY Bar Committee concluded that Articles 6(c) and 9(e) of the 2005 Convention offered sufficient safeguards to alleviate the concern. Article 6(c) would allow a party to demonstrate that it never consented to a putative choice of court agreement and that holding a party to such a clause would create manifest injustice or would manifestly violate the public policy of the non-selected court. Article 9(e) would also prevent the recognition or enforcement of a judgment when it would be manifestly incompatible with the public policy of the requested State. Despite Article 9(a) of the 2005 Convention, the NY Bar Committee NY Bar was satisfied that Article 9(e) would allow the court to stop the effect of the finding by the allegedly selected court in favour of the validity of a bogus choice of court agreement. To strengthen this position, the NY Bar Committee recommended the introduction of federal legislation to reiterate the principles that voluntary consent to jurisdiction is an aspect of fundamental US public policy and an element of US constitutional due process, and also that US public policy requires a court to refuse to recognise or enforce a judgment obtained in a judicial system that does not afford impartial tribunal and judicial fairness. The Hartley and Dogauchi Explanatory Report was instrumental to reach this positive conclusion.

En 2003, la première phase automnale de l’activité de la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme (CEDH) aura été particulièrement riche et déjà plusieurs commentaires publiés dans les colonnes électroniques de Dalloz actualité en ont donné une idée. Dans cette chronique bimestrielle à vocation synthétique, on mettra en avant les arrêts et décisions qui révèlent une volonté de lutter contre les dérives probatoires ; qui témoignent de la compréhension envers le conservatisme des règles françaises en matière de procréation médicalement assistée ; qui apportent un soutien aux femmes qui insistent paradoxalement pour partir à la retraite à un âge aussi avancé que celui des hommes ; qui influencent tant bien que mal le droit des étrangers. La Cour s’est évidemment attaquée à d’autres questions de première importance par des arrêts et décisions dont il sera rendu compte sous une forme plus ramassée.

Sur la boutique Dalloz Les grands arrêts de droit international pénal Voir la boutique Dalloz

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In May, the Hamburg Max Planck Institute organized an online panel to discuss implications from the German Federal Constitutional Court Decision on the Act to Combat Child Marriages rendered just prior. The panelist were Henning Radtke (Judge at the Constitutional Court),  Dagmar Coester-Waltjen (Professor emeritus for PIL at University of Göttingen), Susanne Gössl (Professor for PIL at University of Bonn) and Lars Viellechner (Professor for Constitutional Law at University of Bremen). Their contributions are now available, together with a short introduction, in open access via the “online first” section of Rabels Zeitschrift.

 

Ralf Michaels, Einleitung zum Symposium

Henning Radtke, Zu den Maßstäben der verfassungsrechtlichen Beurteilung von Regelungen des deutschen Internationalen Privatrechts

Susanne Lilian Gössl, Grundrechte und IPR: Vom beidseitigem Desinteresse zu höflicher Aufmerksamkeit – und zu angeregtem Austausch?

Lars Viellechner, Die Anwendbarkeit der Grundrechte im Internationalen Privatrecht: Zur Methodik der Entscheidung des Bundesverfassungsgerichts über die Kinderehe

Dagmar Coester-Waltjen, Die “Kinderehen”-Entscheidung des Bundesverfassungsgerichts: Welche Schlussfolgerungen ergeben sich für das internationale Eheschließungsrecht?

Ligue des droits humains (Vérification du traitement des données par l’autorité de contrôle)
Traitement de données à caractère personnel : les décisions prises par une autorité de contrôle dans le cadre de l’exercice indirect des droits de la personne concernée sont juridiquement contraignantes

NC (Transfert d’une étude notariale espagnole)
Le changement du titulaire d’une étude notariale espagnole peut constituer un transfert d’entreprise

The Interdisciplinary Association of Comparative and Private International Law (IACPIL) is hosting a conference titled “Legal Protection of Vulnerable Adults in Central and Eastern Europe” on the 28 November 2023 at the University of Vienna.

The aging population and the rise of age-related diseases result in the urgent need to address the legal issues surrounding vulnerable adults. Beyond the challenges posed by the aging demographic, other vulnerable groups also warrant legal protection. Conducting a comparative analysis of the prevailing legal frameworks for protecting vulnerable adults becomes imperative to gain insights into effective solutions and identify areas requiring further attention.

This conference will therefore explore the protection of vulnerable adults in Central and Eastern Europe including cross-border issues. Masha Antokolskaia and Bea Verschraegen, renowned experts in the fields of comparative and private international law, will shed light on the complexities surrounding the protection of vulnerable adults.

The full programme of the conference and further information can be found here.

Participation is free of charge. Those wishing to attend the Conference online are invited to register by 27 November 2023 (office@igkk.org).

On 16 November 2023, on the “International Day of Tolerance”, Prof. Rosario Espinosa Calabuig, is organising a new International Seminar, this time under the title: SUSTAINABILITY, SOLIDARITY AND TOLERANCE FROM PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW. Program:  Verónica Ruiz Abu-Ngim CARTEL Seminario Sostenibilidad, solidaridad y tolerancia. 16 nov. 2023 (Edinburgh): “Solidarity and sustainability: a look at Private International Law from the 2030 Agenda” Stéphanie Franq (Louvain): “From Sorority to Solidarity in Private International Law: a methodological approach” Laura Carballo Piñeiro (Vigo): “Tolerance or Solidarity? A look at maritime migrations from the perspective of cinema”. More info here.

The U.S. Supreme Court has long held that a forum selection clause should not be enforced when “trial in the contractual forum will be so gravely difficult and inconvenient” that the plaintiff “will for all practical purposes be deprived of his day in court.” The financial status of the plaintiff is obviously a factor that should be considered as part of this inquiry. Large corporations can usually afford to litigate cases in distant courts. Individual plaintiffs frequently lack the resources to do so. Nevertheless, the lower federal courts in the United States have repeatedly held that financial hardship on the part of the plaintiff is not enough to make an otherwise valid forum selection clause unenforceable.

In a new article, Financial Hardship and Forum Selection Clauses, I argue that this practice is both doctrinally incorrect and deeply unfair. U.S. courts can and should consider the plaintiff’s financial circumstances when deciding whether to enforce foreign forum selection clauses. To illustrate the perversity of current practice, one need look no further than Sharani v. Salviati & Santori, Inc.

Jay Sharani, his wife Catherine, and their two young children were moving from the United Arab Emirates to San Franciso, California. They paid $3600 to IAL Logistics Emirates, LLC (IAL), a shipping company, to transport seventy pieces of household goods to the Bay Area. Although the goods were successfully delivered to a warehouse in Oakland, IAL never communicated this fact to the Sharanis. The Sharanis repeatedly sought to contact IAL over the course of two months. They received no response. When the company finally responded, the Sharanis discovered that many of their goods were in the process of being sold at auction. When the remaining goods were finally delivered, most of them were damaged and unusable.

The Sharanis filed a lawsuit, pro se, against IAL’s delivery agent in federal district court in California alleging breach of contract and negligence under the Carriage of Goods by Sea Act. The defendant moved to dismiss the case based on a forum selection clause in the shipping agreement. That clause required all lawsuits to be brought in London, England. The Sharanis argued that the clause should not be enforced because it would deprive them of their day in court. Specifically, they alleged that (1) they could not afford to hire counsel in the United Kingdom, and (2) they could not afford to take extended time away from their jobs and family responsibilities to represent themselves abroad.  The court rejected these arguments. It held that the Sharanis had failed to show that litigating in England would be so expensive as to deprive them of their day in court. It also held that that the Sharanis had not explained “why one parent could not stay with the children while the other parent pursues the claim, or why their income is insufficient to pay for childcare.” The case was dismissed.

In my article, I demonstrate that the outcome in Sharani is no outlier. In case after case, decided decade after decade, U.S. courts have enforced foreign forum selection clauses knowing full well that the practical effect of enforcement would almost certainly deprive plaintiffs of their day in court because they lack the financial resources to bring their cases abroad. The end result is a long trail of abandoned lawsuits where plaintiffs holding legal claims were denied access to a forum in which to assert those claims through no fault of their own.

[This post is cross posted at Transnational Litigation Blog.]

On Tuesday, December 7, 2023, the Hamburg Max Planck Institute will host its 39th monthly virtual workshop Current Research in Private International Law at 10:00-11:30 (CET). Mary Keyes (Griffith University Brisbane) will speak, in English, about the topic

Trends in Australian Private International Law

This presentation will describe and analyse five important trends in Australian private international law, some but not all of which are not uniquely Australian. These are increasing independence from the English law on which Australian private international law is based; an astonishing increase in the volume of cross-border litigation; the rise and rise of jurisdiction; a broad attitude to the Australian courts’ jurisdiction; and the lack of systemic development of this area of the law.

The presentation will be followed by open discussion. All are welcome. More information and sign-up here.

If you want to be invited to these events in the future, please write to veranstaltungen@mpipriv.de.

While EU harmonization in matters of parenthood is approaching, following the Commission’s proposal of last year [COM (2022) 695 final], national courts are still examining applications for recognition of foreign court decisions in accordance with domestic legislation. Earlier this year, the Areios Pagos, i.e., the Hellenic Supreme Court, was asked to decide whether an Austrian judicial declaration of paternity should be denied recognition on grounds of public policy, or not (Areios Pagos, Judgment No. 170/2023, available in Greek here).

Facts First stage: Austria

In 2012, an Austrian national (A), domiciled in Austria, started non-contentious proceedings before the District Court of Eastern Graz, in Austria, against a Greek national (B), whose residence was in Thessaloniki, Greece. Born in 1968, A sought a declaration that B was her father. The court ruled in 2015 that B, who had died shortly before the publication of the decision, was in fact the father of A.

The Graz Civil Court of First Instance, seised by the heirs of B, dismissed the appeal in 2016. The appellants further filed an (extraordinary) appeal against the latter decision, but this appeal, too, was dismissed.

The judicial declaration of paternity was declared​ final in Austria in June 2016.

Second Stage: Greece

On an application filed before the Thessaloniki Court of first Instance, the Austrian judicial declaration was recognized in Greece pursuant to the pertinent provisions of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure (mainly Article 780, on the recognition of foreign judgments issued in non-contentious proceedings). The heirs of B challenged the recognition, to no avail. They seised, then, the Greek Supreme Court, arguing, among other things, that the Austrian decision should not be recognized in Greece on the ground that its recognition would offend Greek public policy. They noted that the Austrian rules governing proceedings aimed at a declaration of paternity differ profoundly from the corresponding Greek rules, notably as regards the time limits on applying for such a declaration. 

The Supreme Court’s Judgment

In its ruling, the Supreme Court focused on Paragraph 148 of the Austrian Civil Code, on judicial determination of paternity, which reads as follows:

(1) The court must establish the paternity of the man from whom the child is descended. The application may be made by the child against the man or by the man against the child.

(2) On application by the child, the man who was present with the mother for not more than 300 and not less than 180 days before the birth or with whose semen medically assisted procreation was performed on the mother during this period may be established as the father, unless he proves that the child is not his offspring. Such recognition is no longer possible two years after the man’s death, unless the child proves that he or she is unable to provide evidence in accordance with para. 1 for reasons on the man’s side.

The Supreme Court then turned to corresponding Greek rule on the matter, namely Article 1483 of the Civil Code, which states:

A mother’s right to request recognition of her child’s paternity is extinguished when five years have passed since birth. The child’s right shall be extinguished one year after the child has reached the age of majority, and the right of the father or his parents two years after the mother has refused consent.

The Supreme Court dismissed the appeal. It acknowledged that Austrian law sets a two-year limitation period starting from the death of the father, whereas Greek law stipulates that an application for a declaration of paternity may be lodged no later than one year after the child has reached the age of majority, but observed that such a difference in regulation does not amount to a violation of public policy.

The Supreme Court concluded that recognition of the Austrian declaration ought to be granted in Greece, given that nothing in the judgment in question offends the basic principles of the Greek legal order.

Some Remarks

Two years ago, the Athens Court of Appeal was called upon to examine the recognition of a German decision. The issues raised by the case are similar to those surrounding the Supreme Court’s ruling examined above. A German citizen, 31 years old at the date of filing, had seised a German court (the Schöneberg Justice of the Peace) seeking a declaration that the respondent, a Spaniard living in Athens, was his father. The German court upheld the application, and issued a declaration of paternity, which eventually became final in Germany.

At first instance, the German decision was granted recognition in Greece. The Athens Court of Appeal, however, later decided otherwise (Judgment No. 2736/2021, published in Private Law Chronicles 2021, p. 438 ff.).

In brief, it ruled as follows: the fact that the appellee applied for recognition of paternity before the German courts for the first time 13 years after he came of full age and subsequently, after 17 years, for the recognition of the German court decision in Greece, constitutes a breach of the time limits laid down by Greek law concerning applications for a declaration of paternity, and accordingly contravenes the public policy of Greece, since it constitutes an expression of abusive conduct

The Athens Court relied for this on the Greek Constitution and on the European Convention on Human Rights, in conjunction with Article 33 of the Greek Civil Code (on the public policy exception) and, more generally, the Greek legal order, which is concerned with the protection of third parties and the protection of public interest, as regards legal relationships that have been established and settled to date, i.e., 17 years after the appellant came of full age.

The Court of Appeal concluded that the Court of First Instance wrongly failed to examine whether the legal effects of the abovementioned German judgment, based on German law, correspond in substance to Greek law. Were Greek law applied, the legal consequences would have been diametrically opposed, and the application would have been dismissed, since the appellee had lost the right to bring the action long ago. Therefore, the court which delivered the judgment under appeal was not entitled to recognize the res judicata effect of that German judgment in Greece.

Article 31 para 1(a) of the Proposal for a Council Regulation on jurisdiction, applicable law, recognition of decisions and acceptance of authentic instruments in matters of parenthood and on the creation of a European Certificate of Parenthood, states

The recognition of a court decision shall be refused: (a) if such recognition is manifestly contrary to the public policy of the Member State in which recognition is invoked, taking into account the child’s interests.

The addition of the last part of the wording (taking into account the child’s interests), which is also featured in the Brussels II ter Regulation (Article 39(1)(a): taking into account the best interests of the child), is a clear message towards a stronger protection of the children. The question here is whether the protective shield refers to children of any age, i.e., even those children who have already passed the age of majority since many years.

The second issue of the Journal of Private International Law for 2023 has just been published. It contains the following articles:

DJB Svantesson & SC Symeonides, “Cross-border internet defamation conflicts and what to do about them: Two proposals”

Conflicts of laws in cross-border defamation cases are politically and culturally sensitive and their resolution has always been difficult. But the ubiquity of the internet has increased their frequency, complexity, and intensity. Faced with the realities of the online environment—including the virtual disappearance of national borders—several countries have acted unilaterally to preserve their values and protect their interests. Some countries enacted laws favouring consumers or other potential plaintiffs, while other countries took steps to protect potential defendants, including publishers and internet service providers. As a result, these conflicts are now more contentious than ever before. We believe there is a better way—even-handed multilateral action rather than self-serving unilateral action. In this article, we advance two proposals for multilateral action. The first is a set of soft law principles in the form of a resolution adopted by the Institut de Droit International in 2019. The second is a proposed Model Defamation Convention. After presenting and comparing these two instruments, we apply them to two scenarios derived from two leading cases (the first and one of the latest of the internet era) decided by courts of last resort. The first scenario is based on Dow Jones & Company Inc v Gutnick, which was decided by the High Court of Australia in 2002. The second is based on Gtflix Tv v. DR, which was decided by the Court of Justice of the European Union at the end of 2021. We believe that these two instruments would produce more rational solutions to these and other cross-border defamation conflicts. But if we fail to persuade readers on the specifics, we hope to demonstrate that other multilateral solutions are feasible and desirable, and that they are vastly superior to a continuing unilateral “arms race.” In any event, we hope that this article will spur the development of other proposals for multilateral action.

 

G McCormack, “Conflicts in insolvency jurisdiction”

The Hague Judgments Convention 2019 contains an insolvency exception. The paper suggests that the proposed Hague Jurisdiction Convention should contain an insolvency exception that mirrors that contained in the existing Hague Judgments Convention. It is also submitted that international instruments in the field of insolvency, and related matters, are best dealt with by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL).

 

L Theimer, “Protection against the breach of choice of court agreements: A comparative analysis of remedies in English and German courts”

In fixing the place and provider for the resolution of disputes in advance, choice of court agreements increase procedural legal certainty and the predictability of litigation risks. Hence, their protection is crucial. This article undertakes a functional comparison of the remedies for breach of exclusive choice of court agreements in English and German courts, painting a picture of different approaches to a common problem. English courts, now no longer constrained by EU law, employ an entire arsenal of remedies, most strikingly the anti-suit injunction and damages effectively reversing a foreign judgment. In contrast, German courts exercise greater judicial restraint, even though damages for the breach of a choice of court agreement have recently been awarded for the first time. Against this backdrop, two distinct but interrelated reasons for the diverging approaches are identified and analysed, the different conceptions of choice of court agreements and the different roles of comity and mutual trust.

 

V Shikhelman, “Enforcement of foreign judgments – Israel as a case study”

This article shows how enforcement of foreign judgments in Israel works in practice. Using an original hand-coded dataset, the article seeks to determine empirically which factors increase the likelihood of a foreign judgment being enforced by Israeli courts. To do so the article makes use of two major theories about enforcement of foreign judgments – international comity and vested rights. Also, the article hypothesises that enforcement can be influenced by specific characteristics of the Israeli court and the foreign judgment.

The article finds that the best predictor of foreign judgment enforcement in Israel is the specific characteristics of the foreign judgment and of the Israeli court – cases with a contractual-commercial nature, and cases brought before one of the central districts of Israel are more likely to be enforced. Additionally, the volume of trade between the issuing country and Israel might also be a certain predictor of enforcement. Finally, the article finds that the due process in individual cases might have some influence on the enforcement decision.

 

D Zannoni, “How to balance respect for diversity and the rights of the vulnerable? (Non-)recognition of forced and underage marriage under the lens of the European Convention on Human Rights”

Partly in view of the migratory phenomenon to which Europe is exposed, forced and underage marriages nowadays deserve careful consideration both as social phenomena and as legal institutions. This paper aims to verify whether and to what extent forced and underage marriages should be recognised in Europe. On the one hand, recognising the validity of these acts could arguably clash with fundamental values and rights protected by the European Convention on Human Rights and the Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence. On the other hand, it is not possible to a priori exclude that a flat refusal to recognise a marriage validly established abroad might entail a violation of further rights of the spouses and ultimately have detrimental consequences for the parties that the refusal aims to protect. The aim is to assess whether private international law tools and techniques can offer a proper balance between respect for the fundamental values of reception societies and protection of the rights and interests of the parties involved.

Review Article

B Hayward, Putting the recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments in context: Comparative Recognition and Enforcement, by Dr Drossos Stamboulakis

The Yukos saga is a gift that keeps on giving.

Following the nationalisation of Yukos in 2007, the former shareholders commenced a number of arbitral proceedings against Rosneft, which acquired Yukos’ assets, and Russia.

Many readers of the blog will know that the English courts have already dealt with an aspect of the Yukos saga. The arbitrations against Rosneft were seated in Russia. The arbitral tribunals decided in favour of the claimants. The awards were set aside in Russia. Nevertheless, the award creditors tried to enforce the awards in the Netherlands and England. The Dutch courts refused to recognise the Russian settings aside. In 2012, the Court of Appeal of England and Wales held that the foreign act of state doctrine did not apply to allegations of impropriety against foreign court decisions and that the Dutch judgments did not create an issue estoppel in England because the issues raised in the Dutch and the English proceedings were not the same (violations of Dutch and English public policy, respectively).

Cockerill J has now dealt with another aspect of the saga. The arbitration against Russia was commenced under the Energy Charter Treaty and was seated in the Netherlands. The arbitral tribunal (Yves Fortier as Chairman, Charles Poncet, and Stephen M Schwebel) ordered Russia to pay USD50bn to the claimants plus compound interest accruing at around USD2.5m a day. Russia tried to set aside the arbitral award, while the award creditors tried to enforce it in England. The Hague Court of Appeal rejected Russia’s challenges that the tribunal did not have jurisdiction and that there was fraud in the arbitration. The Dutch Supreme Court upheld the Court of Appeal’s ruling regarding the jurisdictional issue but held that the Court of Appeal had erred with respect to the fraud issue. The judgment was quashed and returned to the Court of Appeal for further consideration and decision. Did the Dutch judgments create an issue estoppel in England regarding the jurisdictional issue? Cockerill J answered the question positively in his judgment of 1 November 2023 in Hulley Enterprises Ltd v Russia.

There were four issues before the court: 1) can a foreign judgment against a state create an issue estoppel; 2) did the Dutch judgments satisfy the requirements for recognition from section 31 of the Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 1982; 3) were the issues in the Dutch and English proceedings the same; and 4) were the Dutch judgments res judicata regarding the jurisdictional issue?

It may be surprising to hear that there was no clear authority on whether a foreign judgment against a state can create an issue estoppel. The court found that under common law there was ‘no reason why, if the relevant hurdles are cleared, there cannot be an issue estoppel arising out of a foreign judgment against a state, just as there can be against an ordinary company or individual’ ([48]).

Section 31(1)(b) of the Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 1982 provides that a foreign judgment against a state can be recognised and enforced in England only if the court of origin would have had jurisdiction in the matter if it had applied rules corresponding to those applicable to such matters in the United Kingdom in accordance with the State Immunity Act 1978. ‘In other words: you can enforce/recognise a judgment here, but only if you could have got it here.’ ([42]) Section 2 of the 1978 Act provides that submission to jurisdiction is an exception to immunity. Russia submitted to the jurisdiction of the Dutch courts by challenging the award there.

The issues in the Dutch and English proceedings were the same, namely the validity of the arbitration agreement.

After hearing from experts on Dutch law, the court found that the Dutch judgments were res judicata regarding the jurisdictional issue, even if the Supreme Court had quashed the part of the Court of Appeal judgment dealing with the fraud issue and returned it to the Court of Appeal.

The outcome is that:

a particular legal battle has already been fought out fully between the parties. The RF chose to dispute jurisdiction, including the construction of Article 45 ECT, in the Netherlands. It has..had a determination, and cannot seek to have another one before a different court. ([55])

Consequently, the court dismissed the jurisdictional challenge to the enforcement of the arbitral award and, furthermore, stated that Russia was not immune as respects proceedings in the courts of the United Kingdom which relate to the arbitration pursuant to section 9 of the 1978 Act.

The Dutch and English courts are yet to deal with the fraud issue. The next chapter of the Yukos saga is eagerly awaited.

The fourth issue of the Journal du droit international for 2023 has been released.

It contains three articles and several case notes relating to private international law issues, including the 2022 annual case-law review of EU private international law coordinated by Louis d’Avout (University of Paris II) and Jean-Sébastien Quéguiner (University of Rennes).

In the first article, Hugues Fulchiron (French Cour de Cassation & University of Lyon 3) analyses the recent EU PIL regulation proposal in matters of parenthood, assessing its chances to be actually adopted (La proposition de règlement européen sur la filiation: coup de maître ou coup d’épée dans l’eau?).

The English abstract reads:

The proposal for a European Regulation on filiation published on December 7, 2022, came as a surprise, given that matters of filiation are an area where national specificities and principles of public order prevail. This is evidenced by the strong opposition among EU Member States on issues related to same-sex parenthood or surrogacy. It aligns with EU policies aimed at recognizing children’s rights and promoting equal treatment for LGBTIQ individuals. It also aims to facilitate the movement of people by ensuring the portability of their status.

To achieve its objectives, the proposal broadens the scope of its jurisdiction and adopts a conflict of laws rule that is sufficiently general and neutral to encompass all situations, from traditional families to same-sex parent families or children born through surrogacy. Above all, everything is designed to facilitate the recognition of parent-child relationships established in a Member State. To this end, a European Certificate of Filiation is notably established. The role of public policy is also strictly limited. Nevertheless, this ambitious project may face opposition from Member States. To avoid roadblocks, it might be necessary to resort to enhanced cooperation and refer questions related to surrogacy to the ongoing work within the Hague Conference on Private International Law.

In the second article, Marylou Françoise (University of Lyon 3) examines the role of (French) courts in private international law disputes from the perspective of the French Draft Code of private international law (L’office du juge à la lumière du projet de Code de droit international privé).

The English abstract reads:

The French draft Code of private international law, submitted to the Minister of Justice on March 31, 2022, modifies a significant number of existing standards. The provisions relating to the powers of a court are particularly affected, renewing the debate on the authority of the conflict of laws and international jurisdiction rule over the judge and the parties. The solution adopted is particularly favorable to the effectiveness of the rule. It requires the judge to verify her or his international jurisdiction and to apply, if necessary ex officio, the conflict of laws rule. However, the proposed framework raises several questions about its implementation. For instance, the scope of the proposal, the status of foreign elements and the form of the procedural agreement, deserve to be discussed.

In the third article, Cécile Legros (University of Rouen Normandie) analyses a recent decision of the UK Supreme Court in matters of international carriage of goods by road (JTI POLSKA Sp. Z o.o. and others v Jakubowski and others [2023] UKSC 19) and addresses questions of interpretation of international conventions in this area (La force du précédent en droit britannique ou les limites de l’interprétation uniforme des conventions internationales de droit matériel).

The English abstract reads:

For once, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom has just ruled on a request to reverse established case law. The application sought to put an end to a divergence in case law between the States parties to the Convention on the Contract for the International Carriage of Goods by Road of 19 May 1956 (known as the CMR), which is a uniform law convention. Although the Court refuses to reverse this precedent, the judgment is remarkable in several respects, particularly as regards the method of interpreting uniform law conventions. However, it is disappointing in terms of improving uniform interpretation of the CMR, so that other solutions need to be considered. Soft law thus appears to be a possible remedy for the limitations of uniformization by international conventions.

The table of contents of the issue can be accessed here.

Two years ago, the Uniform Law Conference of Canada (ULCC) released a revised version of the Court Jurisdiction and Proceedings Transfer Act (CJPTA), model legislation putting the taking of jurisdiction and staying of proceedings on a statutory footing. The statute is available here.

The ULCC has now released a revised version of another model statute, the Enforcement of Canadian Judgments Act (ECJA). The original version of this statute was prepared in 1998 and had been amended four times. It has now been consolidated and substantially revised. It is available here and background information is available here and here.

Disclosure: I was the lead researcher and a member of the Working Group for the revised ECJA.

The ECJA is based on the general rule that a party seeking to enforce a Canadian judgment in a province or territory that has enacted the ECJA should face no additional substantive or procedural barriers beyond those that govern the enforcement of judgments of the local courts.

The core features of the ECJA are unchanged. The statute allows for the registration of a Canadian judgment (a defined term: s 1). This is an alternative from the common law process of suing on the judgment. Registration is a simple administrative process (s 4) and makes the judgment enforceable as if it were a judgment of the province or territory in which it is registered (s 5). The aim is to make the enforcement of Canadian judgments easier.

Another core feature is also unchanged. The defendant cannot, at the registration stage, object to the jurisdiction of the court that rendered the judgment (s 7(4)(a)). Any challenge to the jurisdiction of that court must be made in the province or territory in which the plaintiff has chosen to sue.

What has changed? First, the commentaries to the statutory provisions have been extensively revised. In part this reflects the many developments that have occurred over the past thirty years. Second, a new provision (s 1(3)(f)) makes it clear that the scheme does not apply to a judgment that itself recognizes or enforces a judgment of another province, territory or foreign jurisdiction. This precludes registering so-called “ricochet” judgments. There had been some debate in the jurisprudence about whether the scheme applies to such judgments. Third, a clearer process has been established (s 7(1)) for setting aside a registration (for example, if the judgment does not in fact meet the requirements for registration). Fourth, there are some smaller changes to provisions dealing with the calculation of post-judgment interest (s 8) and costs of the registration process (s 9).

In addition, an optional defence to registration has been added (s 7(2)(a)(ii)). The defence protects individual defendants who are resident in the place of registration against certain judgments in consumer and employment litigation. Such a defence is not, in general, available under the current statutory schemes or at common law: these treat consumer and employment litigation similar to all other civil litigation rather than as a special case. The defence is optional in that it is left to an enacting province or territory to decide whether to implement it.

It will now fall to the provinces and territories that have enacted the ECJA to determine how to respond to these changes. A version of the statute is in force in several provinces and territories including British Columbia, Manitoba, Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan. It will also be interesting to see if the revised and updated version generates any interest in the provinces and territories that did not enact the earlier version (which include Alberta, Ontario and Quebec).

The expectation is that the ULCC will now turn its attention to revising its third model statute in this area, the Enforcement of Foreign Judgments Act (available here).

The Private International Law Department of the University of Alicante is organizing a conference entitled “Digital Justice for Cross-border Cases” (both onsite and online – in Spanish). The event will take place on 23 November 2023 at the Salón de Grados “Rector Ramón Martín Mateo” of the Faculty of Law at the University of Alicante.

This event is financed by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, the State Agency of Investigation and funds from the European Regional Development Fund. More information is available here.

Participation is free of charge.  To register click here. Last day to register is 20 November 2023.

Any questions may be directed to proyectodijta@gmail.com.

Please find the program below.

The latest issue of the RabelsZ (Rabels Zeitschrift für ausländisches und internationales Privatrecht) has been published. As always, it contains a number of insightful articles, this time also two in English language. Here are the authors, titles and abstracts:

Horatia Muir Watt, An Ontology of the In-Between [18th Ernst Rabel Lecture, 2022] (Open Access)

The conflict of laws can serve heuristically to underscore two established but radically opposing models of modernist legal ordering: multilateralism and statutism. Such a prism is helpful if we want to rethink (as we must!) our late-modern legality’s deep epistemological settings in the shadow of the »catastrophic times« to come, whether in terms of environmental devastation or political dislocation. Both phenomena are profoundly linked and indeed constitute two faces of alterity, natural and cultural, from which modernity has progressively taught us to distance ourselves. Importantly, law encodes the conditions that produce these dual somatic symptoms in our contemporary societies. This chasm between nature and culture has produced humanity’s »ontological privilege« over our natural surroundings and a similar claim of superiority of modern (Western) worldviews over »the rest«. In this respect, the main achievement of the moderns, as Bruno Latour wryly observed, has been to universalise the collective blindness and amnesia that allow our »anthropocentric machine« to hurtle on, devastating life in its path and devouring the very resources it needs to survive.

Anton S. Zimmermann, Kriegskollisionsrecht. Ein Beitrag zum international-privatrechtlichen Umgang mit Gebietseroberungen (War and the Conflict of Laws – Private International Law’s Treatment of Territorial Conquest.)

The Russian war of aggression against Ukraine constitutes a breach of a fundamental consensus in public international law: states have authority over their territory. One element of territorial sovereignty is the right to legislate in the field of private law. If a territory is conquered, this right is – in breach of public international law – usurped by the conquering state. This article examines how private international law deals with such changes in factual power. It demonstrates that private international law is more flexible than is commonly assumed and that it can provide a differentiated and adequate reaction to occupations and annexations.

Wenliang Zhang and Guangjian Tu, Recent Efforts in China’s Ambition to Become a Centre for International Commercial Litigation

The last decade or so has witnessed intensifying efforts by China to reshape its legal framework for international commercial litigation. These efforts echo its advancement of the »One Belt and One Road Initiative« and a policy of strengthening the foreign-related rule of law. But the measures so far have been piecemeal and were adopted mainly by the Supreme People’s Court (SPC). Leading lower Chinese courts, the SPC has zealously advanced the reform of international commercial litigation by devices such as international commercial courts (ICCs), anti-suit injunctions, forum non conveniens and de jure reciprocity favouring recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments. Such efforts may help modernize China’s mechanism for international commercial litigation, and more are expected. Although what the SPC has been doing moves closer to the global mainstream and is on the right track, deep reforms are still needed before the Chinese international commercial litigation regime can »go global«.

Mathias Habersack and Peter Zickgraf, Sorgfaltspflichten und Haftung in der Lieferkette als Regelungsmodell: Rechtsentwicklung – Rechtsvergleichung – Rechtsökonomik – Rechtsdogmatik (Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence and Supply Chain Liability as a Regulatory Model: Legal Developments – Comparative Assessment – Economic Analysis – Legal Theory)

The proposal for a Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive significantly exceeds the German Supply Chain Act (LkSG) not only in terms of its scope of application and the protected interests, but also regarding the enforcement mechanism in the event of a violation of a due diligence duty. While the LkSG has taken a stand against private enforcement in its § 3 para. 3 s. 1, Art. 22 of the proposed Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive makes companies civilly liable for misconduct committed by their subsidiaries and business partners. The present article deals with the conceptual fundamentals of this regulatory model: From a comparative perspective, the proposed duties and accompanying civil liability mark a departure from the independent contractor rule which is deeply rooted in the tort laws of the German and Anglo-American legal families; the proposed regulatory model thus brings about a sector-specific paradigm shift in the law of non-contractual liability. From a law and economics perspective, however, the proposed regulatory model is justifiable given the special factors present in typical cases. The liability risks associated with the regulatory model appear to be manageable for companies if the pre-conditions of their potential civil liability are more clearly specified.

The table of contents in German is available here.

Last Thursday, on November 9, 2023, Draft No. 02.23 proposing the adoption of a new Code of Civil Procedure (al-musattara al-madaniyya) was submitted to the House of Representatives in Morocco. One of the most significant innovations in this draft is the introduction, for the first time in Morocco’s history, of a catalog of rules on international jurisdiction. Additionally, it modifies the existing rules on the enforcement of foreign judgments.

Despite the importance of this legislative initiative for the development of private international law in Morocco, the proposed provisions are, unfortunately, disappointing in many respects.

Firstly, concerning the rules of international jurisdiction, it is surprising that the drafters of 2023 heavily relied on the rules found in the Egyptian Code of Civil Procedure, which date back to the fifties of the last century. These rules are, in many respects, completely parochial and outdated. Other codifications from the MENA region (e.g., the Tunisian codification of PIL) or elsewhere (e.g., recent codifications of PIL in Europe and Asia) could have served as better models. Furthermore, the proposed rules seem to have overlooked developments at the regional or international level, particularly those in the European Union and the Hague Conference on Private International Law over the last two decades. The fact that the new proposed rules do not consider even the solutions of the 1991 Ras Lanouf Convention, a double convention concluded between the Maghreb countries (though not yet ratified by Morocco), is hard to explain.

Examples of questionable aspects of the new proposed rules include, among others:

• Adopting the defendant’s nationality as the basis for jurisdiction in all matters, including civil and commercial matters, even if the dispute has no connection with Morocco.
• Failing to distinguish between concurrent and exclusive jurisdiction. This is problematic because the new proposed provision on the requirements for the enforcement of foreign judgments allows Moroccan courts to refuse enforcement if the judgments are rendered in matters falling within the exclusive jurisdiction of Moroccan courts, without providing a list of such matters.
• Adopting questionnable and outdated grounds of jurisdiction, such as location of property without limits and the place of conclusion of the contract.
• Failing to introduce new rules that consider the protection of weaker parties, especially employees and consumers.
• Failing to include a clear and coherent rule on choice of court agreements.
• Failing to include a rule on lis pendens.

 

Secondly, regarding the enforcement of foreign judgments, the main surprise is the introduction of the reciprocity rule, which has not been part of the law on foreign judgments in Morocco. Moreover, Moroccan courts have never invoked reciprocity when dealing with the enforcement of foreign judgments, neither as a possible requirement nor to reject giving effect to foreign judgments. It is not clear why the drafters felt the need to introduce reciprocity when there does not seem to be any particular problem with the enforcement of Moroccan judgments abroad.

The following is a loose translation of the relevant provisions. The text in brackets has been added by the author.

Part II – The Jurisdiction of the Courts

Chapter IV – International Judicial Jurisdiction

Article 72 [(General) Jurisdiction over Moroccans]
The courts of the Kingdom shall have jurisdiction to hear actions brought against Moroccans even if they are not domiciled or resident in Morocco, except when the action concerns immovables located abroad.

Article 73 [(General) Jurisdiction over Foreigners Domiciled or Residence in Morocco]
The courts of the Kingdom shall have jurisdiction to hear actions brought against foreigners who are domiciled or resident in Morocco, except where the dispute concerns immovables located abroad.

Article 74 [(Special) Jurisdiction over Foreigners not domiciled or resident in Morocco]
[1] The courts of the Kingdom shall have jurisdiction to hear actions brought against foreigners who are not domiciled or resident in Morocco [in the following cases]:

1. [Property and Obligations] [if the action] concerns property located in Morocco, or an obligation formed, performed, or should have been performed in Morocco;

2. [Tortious Liability] [if the action] concerns tortious liability when the act giving rise to liability or the damage takes place in Morocco;

3. [Intellectual Property] [if the action] concerns the protection of intellectual property rights in Morocco;

4. [Judicial Restructuring] [if the action] concerns procedures for businesses in difficulty instituted in Morocco;

5. [Joint Defendants] [if the action] is brought against joint defendants, and one of them is domiciled in Morocco;

6. [Maintenance] [if the action] concerns a maintenance obligation and the maintenance creditor is resident in Morocco;

7. [Filiation and Guardianship] [if the action] concerns the filiation of a minor resident in Morocco or a matter of guardianship over a person or property;

8. [Personal status] [if the action] concerns other matters of personal status:

a) if the plaintiff is Moroccan;
b) if the plaintiff is a foreigner who has resident in Morocco and the defendant does not have a known domicile abroad,

9. [Dissolution of marriage] [if the action] concerns the dissolution of the marital bond:
a) if the marriage contract was concluded in Morocco;
b) if the action is brought by a husband or a wife of Moroccan citizenship;
c) if one of the spouses abandons the other spouse and fixes his/her domicile abroad or has been deported from Morocco

[2] [Counterclaims and related claims] The courts of the Kingdom that have jurisdiction over an original action shall also have jurisdiction to hear counterclaims and any related claims.

[3] [Conservative and Provisional measures] The courts of the Kingdom shall also have jurisdiction to take conservative and provisional measures to be executed in the Kingdom even if they do not have jurisdiction over the original action.

Article 75
[1. Consent and Submission] The courts of the Kingdom shall also have jurisdiction to hear actions even if they do not fall within the jurisdiction of the defendant explicitly or implicitly accepting their jurisdiction unless the action concerns an immovable located abroad.

[2. Declining jurisdiction] If the defendant in question does not appear, the court shall [in its motion] rule that it has no jurisdiction.

Part IX – Methods of Execution
Chapter III – General Provisions relating to Compulsory Execution of Judicial Judgments

Article 451 [Necessity of an Exequatur Declaration]
Foreign judgments rendered by foreign courts shall not be enforced unless they are declared enforceable following the conditions laid down in the present Act.

Article 452 [Procedure]
[1] The request for exequatur shall be submitted to the First President of the court of the second instance with subject-matter jurisdiction.
[2] Jurisdiction shall lie with the court of the place of execution, and the executor shall have the authority to pursue the execution wherever the property of the person against whom the execution was issued is found.
[3] The first president or the person replacing him/her shall summon the defendant when necessary.

Article 453 [Requirements]
The foreign judgment shall not be declared enforceable except after verifying that the following requirements are satisfied:
[a] The foreign court did not render a judgment that falls within the exclusive jurisdiction of Moroccan courts;
[b] There exists a substantial connection between the dispute and the court of the state where the judgment was rendered;
[c] There was no fraud in choosing the rendering court;
[d] The parties to the dispute were duly summoned and properly represented;
[e] The judgment became final and conclusive following the law of the rendering court;
[f] The judgment does not contradict with a judgment already rendered by Moroccan courts;
[g] The judgment does not violate Moroccan public policy.

Article 454 [Documents and Appeal]
[1] Except otherwise stipulated in the international conventions ratified by Morocco and published in the Official Gazette, the request [for declarations of enforceability] shall be submitted by way of application accompanied by the following:
[a] an official copy of the judicial judgment
[b] a certificate of non-opposition, appeal, or cassation
[c] a full translation into Arabic of the documents referred to above and certified as authentic by a sworn translator.
[2] The judgment of granting exequatur can be subject to appeal before the Supreme Court.
[3] The Supreme Court shall decide on the appeal within one month.
[4] Judgments granting exequatur in cases relating to the dissolution of marriage shall not be subject to any appeal except by the public prosecutor.

Article 455 [Titles and Authentic Instruments]
Titles and authentic instruments established abroad before competent public officers and public servants can be enforced in Morocco after being declared enforceable, and that after showing that the title or the authentic instrument has the quality of an enforceable title and that it is enforceable following the law of the State where it was drawn up and does not violate the Moroccan public policy.

Article 456 [International Conventions and Reciprocity]
The rules laid down in the previous articles shall be applied, without prejudice to the provisions of the international conventions and treaties ratified by the Kingdom of Morocco and published in the Official Gazette. The rule of reciprocity shall also be considered.

La Cour de justice de l’Union européenne (CJUE) oscille entre rappel de sa jurisprudence et précisions sur la qualification du bis dans son application transnationale. L’analyse tortueuse de la Cour tend à dégager la solution selon laquelle les autorités doivent vérifier si l’instruction donnant lieu à décision définitive n’est pas manifestement dépourvue de caractère approfondi, au besoin par les mécanismes de coopération.

Sur la boutique Dalloz Code de procédure pénale 2024, annoté Voir la boutique Dalloz

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CHINESE JOURNAL OF TRANSNATIONAL LAW

Call for Papers

Special Issue: Private International Law and Sustainable Development in Asia

The United Nations Agenda 2030 with its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) seems to have a blind spot for the role of private and private international law. That blind spot is beginning to be closed. A collective volume with global outlook published in 2021 addressed “the private side of transforming our world”: each of the 17 SDGs was discussed in one chapter of the book devoted to the specific relevance of private law and private international law. In 2022, the IACL-ASADIP conference in Asunción, Paraguay discussed sustainable private international law with regard to Latin America; the contributions published in 2023 in a special issue of the University of Brasilia Law Journal – Direito.UnB., V.7., N.3 (2023).

In this occasion the focus is on Asia. The Chinese Journal of Transnational Law invites submissions for its Vol. 2 Issue 2, to be published in 2025, engaging critically with the functions, methodologies and techniques of private international law in relation to sustainability from an Asian perspective, as well as in relation to the actual and potential contributions of private international law to the SDGs in Asia.

Contributions should focus on Asian perspectives, either addressing a specific global challenge through the lens of the relevant normative framework of a particular country, sub-region, or community/ies in Asia; or ‘glocalising’ the challenge, analysing specific issues affecting concrete contexts in the region in relation to the global objectives included in the UN 2030 Agenda.

Topics could include, but are not limited to:

• Relationships between the international and the domestic, or/and the public and the private in the pursue of the UN Agenda 2030 in Asia
• Sustainability in global supply/value chains and private international law in Asia
• Intra-regional (South-South) migration in Asia and private international law (focus on specific kinds of migration, such as labour migration, climate change migration, forced displacement, refugees, etc)
• Clean energy in Asia and private international law
• Decent work (and economic growth) in Asia, and of Asian workers beyond Asia, and private international law
• Sustainable consumption and production in Asia and private international law (focus on a specific sector, such as apparel, food, agricultural products, etc)
• Gender equality in Asia and private international law
• Sustainable Asian cities and communities and private international law
• Establishment and proof of personal identity in Asia; portability across borders of identity documents in Asia and beyond
• (Non-) recognition of foreign child marriages and forced marriages in and from Asia
• Availability and sustainable management of water (and sanitation) in Asia and the role of private international law
• Private international law and cross-border environmental damage/ adverse effects of climate change/ loss of biodiversity from an Asian perspective.

Note: The issue of transnational access to justice in relation to sustainable development has been considered extensively, including from an Asian perspective, so we suggest interested contributors to refrain from submitting contributions based exclusively on SDG 16.

An abstract of 500-800 words should be submitted by 20 Feburary 2024 to PIL.sustainability.CJTL@ed.ac.uk and CJTL.Editor@whu.edu.cn (please send the abstract to both email addresses). Please include the contributor’s last name in the email title. Selected contributors will be invited to submit a draft paper by 1 October 2024 in advance of a hybrid conference at Wuhan University in November 2024 . The submission of the full article through the journal’s homepage: https://journals.sagepub.com/home/ctl is required by 1 March 2025. Accepted articles will be published online first as advanced articles. Contributors may choose between: Research articles (up to 11,000 words inclusive of footnotes) or short articles (up to 6,000 words inclusive of footnotes). The special issue will be published in September 2025.

Those interested may contact the guest editors Verónica Ruiz Abou-Nigm, Ralf Michaels and Hans van Loon at PIL.sustainability.CJTL@ed.ac.uk.

Chinese Journal of Transnational Law

SAGE

Aims and Scope

The Chinese Journal of Transnational Law is a double-blind peer review journal that aims to address internationally emerging transnational challenges that transcend intellectual and geographic boundaries and require academics from different countries to establish dialogue and communication, and to form understanding and trust. The journal takes a thematic approach to address global challenges from the perspective of transnational law, which is also broadly defined to cover international law (public and private), international economic law, comparative law, the interaction between domestic and international law, and any other legal field possessing a cross-border element. Although published solely in English, the journal embraces relevant submissions from different cultures and regions thus refraining from accentuating the Anglo-Saxon monopoly in the constituency of international legal studies. Its aims and scope are designed in a way that reflects and respects the diversity of views and opinions born out of the particular experiences of different legal regions and attracts readers from the global, regional and Chinese markets. However, it will do so all while providing a forum to enable the analysis, and better understanding, of China, Asia and developing countries’ related matters and perspectives on international and transnational legal issues and their influence in shaping related global legal developments and debates. The journal shall be open to not only traditional doctrinal and theoretical legal research on transnational law, but also policy-oriented, contextual and inter-disciplinary research. Although focused on contemporary matters in its aspiration to be a forum for the latest debates on transnational legal studies, it also considers submissions inspired by in-depth historical perspectives that cast new light on present developments.

This journal includes three sections:

• Research articles (up to 11,000 words inclusive of footnotes)
• Short articles and recent development (up to 6,000s inclusive of footnotes)
• Book reviews on transnational law related issues (up to 1,500 words)

Managing board:

Editors-in-Chief: Prof. Sophia Tang & Prof. Ignacio de la Rasilla (Wuhan University)
Heads of Research Articles: Prof. Prof. Qi Tong and Prof. Su Jinyuan (Wuhan University)
Head of Short Articles and Recent Development: Associate Prof. Zhu Lei (Wuhan University)
Book reviews Editor: Assist. Prof. Hao Yayezi (Wuhan University)

Editorial Board

Bjorn Ahl, University of Cologne, Germany
Joaquin Alcaide, Seville University, Spain
Freya Baetens, Oxford University, UK
Ilias Bantekas, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar
Congyan Cai, Fudan University, China
Adeline Chong, Singapore Management University, Singapore
Ming Du, University of Durham, UK
George Galindo, University of Brasilia – ILC, Brazil
Qisheng He, Peking University, China
Yenkong N. Hodu, Manchester University, UK
Jie Huang, Sydney University, Australia
Zhengxin Huo, China University of Politics and Law, China
Mary Keyes, Griffith University, Australia
Nico Krisch, The Graduate Institute, Geneva, Switzerland
Frédéric Mégret, McGill University, Canada
Jianqiang Nie, Wuhan University, China
Michaels Ralf, Max Planck Institute, Hamburg, Germany
Giesela Ruhl, Humboldt University, Germany
Guangjian Tu, Macau University, Macau, China
Jiangyu Wang, Hong Kong City University, China
Shen Wei, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China

International Scientific Advisory Board

Karen Alter, Northwestern University, USA
Paul Beaumont, University of Stirling, UK
Jose Beneyto, University San Pablo CEU, Madrid, Spain
Simon Chesterman, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Huikang Huang, Wuhan University – ILC, China
Jin Huang, China University of Politics and Law, Beijing, China
Marcelo Kohen, The Graduate Institute, Geneva, Switzerland
Christian Mestre, Wuhan University, China
Roger O’Keefe, Bocconi University, Italy
Anne Peters, Max Planck Institute, Heidelberg, Germany
Hélène Ruiz-Fabri, Max Planck Institute, Luxembourg, Germany
Symeon C. Symeonides, Willamette University, USA
Jorge Viñuales, Cambridge University, UK
Yongping Xiao, Wuhan University, China
Jinsong Yu, Renmin University, China
Peer Zumbansen, McGill University, Canada